My interest in fishing grew out of my interest in netting, which I had first learned in order to make hair nets. In 2009, when I learned I was going to be going to work at l’Anse aux Meadows for ten days, I decided I needed to make a fishing net and a mysterious bone object that had been identified as a line winder for fishing. This led to several years of intermittent research on Viking Age fishing techniques, and that has since spread to fishing more generally in the Middle Ages. Here is some of the information I have collected about the main techniques for catching fish.
Fishing with a Net:
No pieces of net that have been absolutely confirmed as fishing net have survived, though one piece of net from Lund may have been fishing net(1). The best evidence for fishing nets comes from sinkers and floats(2). Some of the possible sinkers are round and with a hole in the centre. It is possible that they might also be loom weights(3). There is also a wooden net stick from Lund (1000-50), believed to be an object for lifting fishing nets(4). Fishing with large nets would have been very difficult because of the weight involved. However, small nets were used, as can be seen in an 11th C illustration from Italy(5).
Smaller nets were used to trap fish in rivers. There is also an image of a dip net in a 16th C woodcut(6). Dip nets are used to catch bottom feeders such as crabs, though it is possible it is also being used to collect fish trapped in a weir. I base this speculation on the fact that the fisherman also has a fish trap, which is normally used in weirs.
What were the nets made of? The most likely source of twine for nets is hemp. Hemp ropes and nets were used until modern times; although hemp doesn’t survive well in the archaeological record, the recent discovery of a field in Norway provides strong evidence of hemp cultivation(7). Because hemp deteriorates quickly in water, some sort of grease was probably used to protect the nets. At the fortress of Louisburg (which is outside the SCA period, but very well documented for historical accuracy), linseed oil mixed with pine tar is used on the nets and fishing lines. Both these materials were readily available in northern Europe during the Middle Ages, so it is reasonable to assume that they might have been used on fishing lines and nets. However, pieces of ropes and net made of bast (usually oak but sometimes lime) have survived from Viking age Denmark. The rope was always twisted, not plaited, and was presumably treated with grease(8).
What knot was used to create nets? I use a sheetbend, working from left to right.
I use a traditional netting needle, which is shown in this image of Arachne(9).
Without the line, it looks like this:
Most of the images identified as netting needles are not compelling, as they could just as easily be pack needles or naalbinding needles (depending on where they were found). They do not have any way of holding extra line, and this is essential for efficient netting. However, one image is intriguing, as it includes what may be a gauge for keeping the net loops the same size(10). With practice, no gauge is needed, however.
While in l’Anse aux Meadows, former fishermen who worked at the site said they had learned the sheetbend for netting. Some of them made an extra knot to ensure absolutely no slipping. The size of the loop matters – too small a loop and you will catch immature fish. Too large a loop, and your fish can swim right through. Just for fun, here is a picture of my net, as it hung inside the main hall at l’Anse aux Meadows on rainy days this summer:
Fishing Weirs:
Fish weirs were relatively common. There were references to fish weirs in Anglo-Saxon grants of property and boundary charters, and in some place names. The weirs used a combination of poles, woven fences, nets, and traps. Several examples are linked below(11). Fishing weirs may have been the most efficient fishing method compared to the amount of effort expended. A weir operates by using structures to funnel the fish (or eels) into a narrow area with a net or fish traps at the apex. The Hemington site (first of the examples below) has pictures of one of these traps, made of woven wicker. Weirs could be placed in rivers or on the sea shore, in locations where migrating fish would travel(12).
Fishing with a Line:
According to one source, bottom fishing with baited hooks weighted with grooved-stone sinkers was the most common method for saltwater fishing(13). It is not clear whether this was done using a long line, with hooks attached along the line and the weight at the bottom, or whether there was a single hook on each line. Another possible use of the line with a hook is to have a row of shorter lines suspended from a line that is strung between two poles or pilings. As the fish swam in at high tide, they would get caught on the baited hooks. At low tide, the fishermen would simply walk (or boat) along the line and unhook the fish.
There were several styles of fishing hook, and all seem to be relatively large: this may reflect the fact that fish were larger in a time before over fishing, or it may reflect the fact that smaller hooks didn’t survive in the archaeological record. The iron hooks commonly had a loop through which the line was tied, or a spatulate end, and the line would be tied below that flattened bit. At least one bone gorge from Birka has also survived(14).
Another fishing technique may have been to use hand-lines. The evidence for this comes primarily from three u-shaped line-winders. The line would have been wound around the arms of the fork in a figure eight. I have made a cow bone version of the whalebone one from Sofmhovd, Norway(15), though mine does not yet have all the decorative work. The photos below show it empty, then with a hemp line and a hook. biggest fear is that it could slip out of my hands should I catch a large fish.
There is little evidence for fishing with a rod in northern Europe before the 14th C. However, there is an image of Roman men fishing with rod and line from the 2nd C(16),
a German image from the 14th C(17),
and one from France in about 1400(18).
The first written reference in English (with a woodcut of an angler) is found in “A Treatyse of Fysshinge With an Angle” by Dame Juliana Berners, published in 1496(19). Dame Juliana gives instructions on how to make an appropriate pole, floats, various kinds of hooks and flies, and describes some of the fish to be caught with a pole.
What kind of line was used for fishing with a pole? A piece of hemp cord works quite nicely. However, Dame Juliana says that the appropriate line is made of horsehair that is twisted and plied. The sections of line are then tied together with a water knot and attached to the pole (20) (21). I tried doing this last summer, and found it to be very difficult. One secret may be to soak the horsehair to soften it. This is a trick used for naalbinding with cow tail hair, so I will be trying it in future with my horsehair. Another option may be to make the line from slyng, or whipcording. I have absolutely no evidence for this as a technique, but it works really well to make other strong cords such as bowstrings, and and it is possible to make spliced joins with slyng. When I tried it this summer, the results were far superior to my twisted horsehair line efforts. There is one painting from 1642 that shows a woman making a fine cord with slyng(22):
For my line experiements, I used light coloured horsehair from a purchased tail of uneven length. and groomings from various horses at the stable where I used to ride. However, the very best hair is said to be white hair from a stallion or gelding that has been well brushed regularly, so there is minimal breakage. The choice of male over female hair is because the urine might break down the horsehairs. It certainly can stain white tails. White is chosen because it can be dyed different colours to match the water colour. Dame Juliana gives instructions for dying the hair tawny, two colours of brown, russet, yellow and two colours of green(23). For those who want to give it a try, http://www.historicanglingenterprises.com/ carries horsehair selected specifically for making lines.
Spear Fishing:
Various forms of leister were used for salmon fishing, and possibly to catch other fish in shallow water. A leister is a form of harpoon that has a piercing tip and backward-facing barbs. The aim is to hold the fish on the spear head, rather than necessarily killing it outright(24). Graham-Campbell shows two different designs from Fossesholm Norway and from Rise, Norway. Both are made of iron(25). The photo below shows a grooved stone sinker, along with the Fossesholm leister and a hook(26).
What kinds of fish were caught? It appears that almost everything was caught and eaten. From archaeological evidence in Anglo-Saxon and Norse occupied England, the most important marine species were cod, haddock and herring. Other marine species included conger eel, whiting, ling, mackerel, horse mackerel, thornback ray, plaice, flounder, dogfish, grey mullet, sea bream, pollack, gurnards, wrasses, sea trout, Dover sole, spurdog, garfish, and turbot. Species found in esturaries and fresh water included smelt, flounder, salmon, pike, perch, roach, chubb, dace, barbel, grayling, bass (though this may have been sea bass). In addition, oysters, crabs, mussels, winkles, cockles, limpets, whelks, scallops. clams, horse mussels, tellins, and lobsters(27). There are no known remains of crab, lobster, shrimp or lobsters, though lobsters are mentioned in Aelfric’s Colloquy, as is fishing for dolphins and whales (28).
(1) Roesdahl, Else. Viking Age Denmark. London: British Museum Publications Ltd, 1982, p 66.
(2) Graham-Campbell, James. Viking Artefacts: A Select Catalogue. London: British Museum Publications Ltd, 1980, p 13, 190.
(3) Collins, AEP. Excavations in Lough Faughan Crannog, Co. Down, 1951-52. Ulster Journal of Archaeology, Third Series, Vol 18 (1955) p 62, 69
(4) Graham-Campbell, p 13, 190.
(5) Italian School’s Ms Grec 479 Fishing with a Net, illustration from the Halieutica by Oppian (tempera on vellum) located at the Biblioteca Marciana, Venice, Italy, created around the 11th century.
(6) Jost Amman’s The Fisherman (woodcut) located at the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, France, 16th century.
(7) http://sciencenordic.com/norwegian-vikings-grew-hemp
(8) Roesdahl, p 100.
(9) De mulieribus claris (BNF Fr. 599, fol. 17v), 15th-16th century
http://nms.scran.ac.uk/database/record.php?usi=000-100-102-537-C
(10) http://nms.scran.ac.uk/database/record.php?usi=000-100-102-537-C
(11) https://twitter.com/irarchaeology/status/580125262022574080, http://www.ucd.ie/news/2011/02FEB11/180211-Secrets-of-Irish-medieval-fishing-site-will-be-lost-to-the-tide.html,
http://medievalnews.blogspot.ca/2009/03/1000-year-old-fish-trap-found-with.html#!/2009/03/1000-year-old-fish-trap-found-with.html.
(12) Hagen, Ann. A Second Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Food and Drink Production and Distribution. Hockwold cum Wilton: Anglo-Saxon Books, 1995, p 162, 163.
(13) Fitzhugh, William W. and Ward, Elisabeth I (editors).
Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000, p 33.
(14) Graham-Campbell, p 13, p 190.
(15) Ibid., p 12, p 190.
(16) Roman Men fishing on the Nile, from Villa Nile, Leptis Magna located at the Jamahiriya Museum, Tripoli, Libya.
(17) Herr Pfeffel, http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/cpg848/0599?sid=9331570548e4b5a35c0ba83edbe89e37
(18) http://utu.morganlibrary.org/medren/single_image2.cfm?imagename=g3.001rb.jpg&page=ICA000131430
(19) Berners, Juliana. A Treatyse on Fysshinge With an Angle. Originally published by Wynken de Worde in 1496. Transcribed by Risa S. Bear, Renascence Editions, 2002. http://www.luminarium.org/renascence-editions/berners/berners.html
(20) Ibid.
(21) http://www.animatedknots.com/waterknot/index.php
(22) Reni, Guido. Education of the Virgin, 1642. The Hermitage, St Petersburg. http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/guido-reni/education-of-the-virgin-1642#supersized-artistPaintings-232211
(23) Berners.
(24) http://www.woodcraftwanderings.org/fishing_1.html
(25) Graham-Campbell, p 13, p 190
(26) Fitzhugh and Ward, p 33.
(27) Hagen, pp. 169-173.
(28) Aelfric’s Colloquy, translated by Ann E. Watkins. Paper No. 16, p. 7. http://www.kentarchaeology.ac/.
copyright Diane Harper, 2012
Helped alot.
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Glad it was useful.
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I’m about to embark on a course and didn’t want to appear a complete idiot. This has been very helpful background reading. Thank you.
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Glad you found it useful.
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Not viking age but in Finland remains of a 10300 year old fishing net was found in 1913. Not only corks and weight stones, but also some pieces of the actual net made of willow bast survived. It was estimated to be almost 30m long and 1,5m high, with 6x6cm eyes.
Some additional info in Finnish: https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antrean_verkko
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Hi, I’m France and I do pageant Xth century and I would like to specialize on net fishing and line. If you have tips or other sources to share I will be very happy to read and reconstruct what was being fought at this time. Thank you in advance. Folker LeBatisseur.
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I don’t have a whole lot more to add, but you should look at some of the Youtube videos on how to mend a net. I had the technique explained to me when I was in Newfoundland, but the videos really helped to ensure that the mend fits smoothly into the existing net. I know that pine tar was used in the 18th C to protect hemp nets from the salt water. It may have been used more recently as I have met retired fishermen who remembered helping to repair their grandpa’s hemp nets when they were young, before the introduction of plastic nets. I haven’t found any conclusive evidence that it was used on earlier notes, however I did find this: Nets made of hemp and other fibres before the advent of nylon were not very resistant. Because of this, traditionally and until relatively recently, natural fibre nets were treated with a certain type of dye, or rather mordant, that impregnated them and to some extent slowed down their natural rapid deterioration. There are reports of the Ibiza fishermen’s custom of using ground pine bark (a magnificent mordant and protector of natural fibres) to make a vat of dye in which to immerse the net for a while before casting it into the sea for the first time. The colour of the net then turned dark brown. (ANCIENT NETS AND FISHING GEAR PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON «NETS AND FISHING GEAR IN CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY: A FIRST APPROACH» CÁDIZ, NOVEMBER 15-17, 2007 Edited by TØNNES BEKKER-NIELSEN AND DARIO BERNAL CASASOLA. Personally, I think this has been written by someone who has misinterpreted what he has heard about. The colour described is much more like that of thinned pine pitch. Soaked pine bark isn’t a very good dye, and other articles refer me to pine pitch being used on ships and cordage for centuries, and was exported commercially from Sweden for the purpose since at least the early 1600s (https://maritime.org/conf/conf-kaye-tar.htm).
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Do you know of a medieval hunting or ishing manual that recommends muddying the water in order to confuse a fish? as happens in Schubert’s lied Die Forelle? I’ve looked through Juliana berners’ book with no success.
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Dame Juliana spoke using barked hemp. If you do a Google search you will fine that barked hemp was used until the early 20th century for saltwater fishing lines. Later far more hazardous substances were used, In some parts of the world tannins are still used on natural fiber nets and lines. Japanese used fermented persimmon juices to waterproof fibers and even made raincoats out of paper. I dyed all of the colors of Dame Juliana’s flies using period dyes.
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